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Microplastics

Introduction
1. Introduction
1.1 What Are Microplastics?
1.2 History of Plastics
1.3 The Making of Plastics
1.4 Plastics Naming Conventions
1.5 Why Do We Care About Microplastics?
1.6 Distribution of Microplastics in the Environment
1.7 Fate and Transport of Microplastics
1.8 Environmental Justice and Microplastics
1.9 Acknowledgment of the Evolving State of the Science
Environmental distribution, fate, and transport
2. Environmental distribution, fate, and transport
2.1 Primary vs. Secondary MP
2.2 Point and Nonpoint Sources
2.3 MP in the Fluvial Environment
2.4 MP in Soil
2.5 MP in Sediment
2.6 MP in Air
2.7 MP in Urban Litter
2.8 Prevalence of MP in Biota
2.9 Degradation
Sampling and analysis
3. Sampling and analysis
3.1 Sample Collection Considerations—MP
3.2 General Quality Assurance/Quality Control
3.3 Special Considerations for NP
3.4 Sample Collection Methods by Matrix
Microplastics Sampling Method Selection Tool
3.5 Sample Preservation
3.6 Sample Preparation
3.7 Analysis and Identification
Human Health and Ecological Effects
4. Human Health and Ecological Effects
4.1 Chemical Properties
4.2 Physical Properties
4.3 Microplastics as Vectors
4.4 Trophic Transfer
4.5 Human Health
4.6 Ecological
4.7 Risk Assessment Methodologies
Regulatory Context
5. Regulatory Context
5.1 State Survey
5.2 Overview of Legislation and Regulatory Programs
Mitigation and Abatement
6. Mitigation and Abatement
6.1 Prevention/Mitigation Strategies
6.2 Abatement/Treatment
Data Gaps and Future Research Needs
7. Data Gaps and Future Research Needs
7.1 Fate and Transport Data Gaps
7.2 Future Research Needs for Sampling and Analyzing MP
7.3 Data Gaps in Evaluation of Potential Health Risks
7.4 Data Gaps in Evaluation of Trophic Transfer
7.5 Data Gaps on Ecological Exposures and Effects
7.6 Future Research Needs for Mitigating, Abating, and Managing MP
References
Appendix A. Microplastics Case Studies
Appendix B. Microplastics State Survey
Appendix C. Laws and Regulations Related to Microplastics
Appendix D. Team Contacts
Appendix E. Glossary
Appendix F. Acronyms
Acknowledgments
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Microplastics
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Microplastics Sampling Method Selection Tool

Filtering Criteria: Media Filtering Criteria: Particle Size Range
Surface Water Wastewater Stormwater Drinking Water Groundwater Soil Sediment Biosolids Pore Water Air Biota All Size Fractions Limited Size Fractions Sample Method Description Equipment Advantages Considerations / Disadvantages Relative Cost
X X X X Grab (Water Body)
  • Surface Water
  • Wastewater
  • Stormwater
Submerge sample bottle/pail directly off the side of a boat or at edge of water body

(Pivokonsky et al. 2018, Pivokonský et al. 2020)

Stainless steel pails, if desired

Telescopic sampling pole, waders, or boat, if desired

Sample
container

Easy to collect

Minimal sampling equipment needed

Lower likelihood of cross-contamination
during sampling due to minimal sampling equipment used

Low sample volume, resulting in discrete sample result Low
X X X X Field-Filtered Grab (Water Body)
  • Surface Water
  • Wastewater
  • Stormwater
Collect sample from water body surface using telescopic sampling pole, stainless steel bucket, or submerged
sample container

Pour sample through stainless-steel sieves for filtration

Cover sieves with
aluminum foil for transport to lab

(Leslie et al. 2017, Magni et al. 2019, Murphy et al. 2016, Tagg et al. 2015)

Telescopic sampling pole or stainless-steel bucket, if desired

Stainless-steel sieves

Aluminum
foil

Sample container

Easy to collect

Provides more representative sample than basic grab sample due to larger sample
volume

Moderate sample volume (typically 10-30 L), resulting in discrete sample result

Potential for sample
contamination from ambient air during sample sieving

Moderately time and labor intensive depending on
method

Size range is limited by filter size

Low to Moderate
X X X Grab (Water Utility)
  • Drinking Water
  • Wastewater
Fill sample container directly from drinking water source or treatment plant raw water inlet or treated
water outflow

(Wang, Lin, and Chen 2020)

Sample container Easy to collect

Minimal sampling equipment required

Lower likelihood of cross-contamination
during sampling due to minimal sampling equipment used

Low sample volume, resulting in discrete sample result Low
X X X Time-Integrated Grab (Water Utility)
  • Drinking Water
  • Wastewater
Fill sample container directly from drinking water source or treatment plant raw water inlet or treated
water outflow

Collect samples every 8 hours over a 24-hour period

Sample containers Easy to collect

Provides a more representative result using multiple grab samples collected over an
extended time period

Moderately time and labor intensive Low to Moderate
X X X X Volumetric Reduction with Net
  • Surface Water
  • Wastewater
  • Stormwater
Drag net behind boat or place in flowing water (typical durations 15 to 60 minutes)

Measure water
velocity

Rinse collected material from net into stainless steel pan/ sample container

(Eriksen et al. 2013, Free et al. 2014, Lenaker et al. 2019, Sutton et al. 2016)

Neuston net, ring net, or manta trawl (for water surface); bongo net (for water column)

Water
velocity measurement device

Boat, depending on location

Stainless steel pan

Sample
container

Provides a larger sample volume, resulting in a more representative concentration

Can target specific
depth intervals

Potential for sample contamination from net fibers, from incomplete net decontamination between sampling,
from ambient air during sample processing, or from rinse water

Sample processing is time consuming and
labor intensive

Size range limited by net mesh size (typically 333 um)

Moderate to High
X X Volumetric Reduction with Net (Autonomous Drone)
  • Surface Water
Portable drone autonomously samples a user-defined area, dragging manta-style net

Measure water velocity

Rinse collected material from net into stainless steel pan/ sample container

(Norwegian University of Science and Technology 2022)

Portable autonomous drone, with manta-style net

Boat, depending on location

Stainless steel
pan

Sample container

Provides a larger sample volume, resulting in a more representative concentration Potential for sample contamination from net fibers, from incomplete net decontamination between sampling,
from ambient air during sample processing, or from rinse water

Sample processing is time consuming and
labor intensive

Size range limited by net mesh size (typically 333 um)

Moderate to High
X X X X X Volumetric Reduction with Sieves
  • Surface Water
  • Wastewater
  • Groundwater
  • Drinking Water
Install/submerge piping/tubing to desired sample depth

Pump water through flow meter and record flow
rate/duration

Direct water flow through stainless steel sieves

Cover sieves with aluminum foil
for transport to lab for analysis

(ASTM 2020, Mason et al. 2016, Okoffo et al. 2019)

Pump

Flow meter

Piping/tubing (ideally non- polymer-based material, such as copper
tubing)

Stainless steel sieves (355, 125, 63, and 43 µm)

Aluminum foil

Provides a larger sample volume, resulting in a more representative concentration

Can target specific
depth intervals

Can install sampling system set-up for routine sampling

Relatively easy to
collect once sampling set-up is installed

Large volume needed (400 – 1,400 gallons)

Upfront sample system set-up required

More sampling
equipment needed than other options

Potential for sample contamination from ambient air during sample
sieving

Size range limited by sieve size

Moderate to High
X X Volumetric Reduction with Sieves (Submerged)
  • Wastewater
Install sampling device placed at desired sampling point in wastewater treatment plant

Allow water to
flow through submerged device

Cover sieves with aluminum foil for transport to lab for
analysis

(Dyachenko, Mitchell, and Arsem 2017, Sutton et al. 2016, Ziajahromi et al. 2017)

Stainless steel sieves installed inside a cover

Water velocity measurement device, if
desired

Aluminum foil

Provides a larger sample volume, resulting in a more representative concentration

Can target specific
depth intervals

Can install sampling system set-up for routine sampling

Relatively easy to
collect once sampling set-up is installed

Large volume needed (typically 1,500 gallons)

Upfront sample system set-up required

More
sampling equipment needed than other options

Size range limited by sieve size

Moderate to High
X X X Volumetric Reduction with In-Line Filters
  • Wastewater
  • Drinking Water
Install stainless-steel filters/containment to inlet tube attached directly to a water tap or
hydrant

Filter drinking water samples in parallel through filter
containment

(Coffin 2022, Kirstein et al. 2021, Yuan et al. 2022)

Stainless steel filters placed in custom modified stainless steel filter holders attached via stainless
steel pipes

Sample containers

In-line filtration minimizes potential for contamination

Provides a larger sample volume, resulting
in a more representative concentration

Can install sampling system set-up for routine
sampling

Relatively easy to collect once sampling set-up is installed

Large volume needed (200-1,100 liters)

Upfront sample system set-up required

Size range
limited by sieve size

Moderate
X X Grab (Stormwater)
  • Stormwater
Submerge sample container beneath flowing water surface at center of stormwater outfall

Allow water
to enter directly into sample container

If sampling for compliance with National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System (NPDES) permit, sampling within 30 minutes of a Qualifying Storm Event may be
required

Record sampling conditions (e.g., precipitation event intensity, presence of
floating/suspended/settled solids etc.)

Telescopic sampling pole, if desired

Sample container

Easy to collect

Low likelihood of cross-contamination during sampling due to minimal sampling
equipment used

Low sample volume, resulting in discrete sample result Low
X X X X Grab (Solids)
  • Soil
  • Sediment
  • Biosolids
Collect sample from top of surface

Remove gross vegetation, if present

Transfer to sample
container

Stainless steel sampling tool (e.g., shovel, stainless steel spoon), if desired

Sample container

Easy to collect

Minimal sampling equipment needed

Limited to top of soil/sediment column

Less discrete sample depth interval

Higher
loss/suspension of sediment into surrounding water column for sediment sampling

Low
X X Hand Auger
  • Soil
Push auger into soil surface

Remove sample from auger and isolate desired sample
interval

Transfer to sample container

Hand auger

Stainless steel tray

Sample container

Can collect discrete sample intervals at deeper portions of soil column

Can be collected using hand
tools

Moderately time and labor intensive, depending on field conditions

Requires slightly more specialized
sampling equipment

May generate excess investigation-derived waste that requires management

Low to Moderate
X X X Direct Push Sampler/Probe
  • Sediment
  • Pore Water
Push auger into soil/sediment surface

Remove sample from auger and isolate desired sample
interval

Transfer to sample container

Stainless steel direct push sampler/probe/modified piezometer

Stainless steel tray

Sample
container

Waders or boat, depending on location

Can collect discrete sample intervals at deeper portions of sediment column

Can be collected using
hand tools

Moderately time and labor intensive, depending on field conditions

Requires slightly more specialized
sampling equipment

May generate excess investigation-derived waste that requires management

Low to Moderate
X X X Drill Rig
  • Soil
  • Sediment
Drill rig pushes split spoon sampler into soil column

Open split spoon sampler

Collect sample
from desired depth interval

Transfer to sample container

Drill rig

Split spoon sampler

Stainless steel tray

Sample container

Can collect discrete sample intervals at deeper portions of soil/sediment column

Allows for deeper
sample collection than hand auger methods

Minimally time and labor intensive

Faster drilling
rates/sample collection than hand methods

Requires specialized sampling equipment

Sample locations may be limited due to drill rig
access

Higher quantity of excess investigation-derived waste that requires management

High
X X X Sediment Grab Sampler Devices
  • Sediment
  • Pore Water
Submerge sampler into sediment surface and close sampler bucket

Release sample into pan to
process

Transfer to sample container

(Lenaker et al. 2019)

Ponar, Van Veen, Ekman, Smith McIntyre, or Hammon sampler

Stainless steel tray

Sample
container

Relatively easy to collect

Can collect samples in deeper water columns than standard grab
sampling

Reduces sediment loss/suspension into water column

Moderately time and labor intensive, depending on field conditions

Requires slightly more specialized
sampling equipment

May generate excess investigation-derived waste that requires management

Low to Moderate
X X Passive Atmospheric Dust
  • Air
Place aluminum tray/funnel and weather station in desired study area

Allow ambient deposition for
desired study period

Record meteorological data

Pour deionized water along aluminum tray/funnel
surface to rinse

Pour rinsate back into deionized rinse water
bottle

(Wright et al. 2020)

Aluminum tray/funnel

Weather station

Deionized rinse water

Sample container

Easy to collect Assesses deposits only rather than suspended particles

May underestimate low-density microplastic
polymers

Units are correlated to surface area rather than air volume, resulting in less meaningful data
with respect to risk assessments

Low
X X Active Pump Sampler
  • Air
Place total suspended particulate sampler in desired study area

Allow sampler to pump air through
filter

Record flow rate and duration

Using metal forceps, remove filters and immediately
transfer into non-plastic, sealed sample collection container

(Brander et al. 2020, Liao et al. 2021)

Total suspended particulate sampler, equipped with glass microfiber filters

Metal tripod, pending
sample location

Inline flow meters or totalizer

Metal forceps

Sample container

Provides a larger sample volume, resulting in a more representative concentration

Provides more
meaningful volumetric data than passive air sampling methods

Requires more specialized sampling equipment

Size range limited by filter size

Moderate to High
X X Cascade Impactor
  • Air
Place cascade impactor sampler in desired study area

Allow sampler to pump air through cascade
impactor

Record flow rate and duration

Cover sieves with aluminum foil for transport to lab for
analysis

(Velimirovic et al. 2021)

Cascade impactor sampler

Metal tripod, pending sample location

Inline flow meters or
totalizer

Aluminum foil

Allows for simultaneous collection of airborne particles of different size fractions

Provides a
larger sample volume, resulting in a more representative concentration

Provides more meaningful
volumetric data than passive air sampling methods

Can be adapted for stationary or personal air
sampling

Method currently used to sample indoor dust, so may require further development for specific application to
MP sampling

Requires more specialized sampling equipment

Size range limited by sieve size

Moderate to High
X X Transmission Electron Microscopy Grid
  • Air
Place transmission electron microscopy (TEM) grid sampler in desired study area

Allow sampler to pump
air through TEM grid

Record flow rate and duration

Using metal forceps, remove TEM grid and
immediately transfer into non-plastic, sealed sample collection container

(Velimirovic et al. 2021)

TEM grid sampler

Metal tripod, pending sample location

Inline flow meters or
totalizer

Metal forceps

Sample container

Provides a larger sample volume, resulting in a more representative concentration

Provides more
meaningful volumetric data than passive air sampling methods

Method currently used to sample indoor dust, so may require further development for specific application to
MP sampling

Requires more specialized sampling equipment

Size range limited by grid size

Moderate to High
X X Fish (Whole)
  • Biota
Capture fish in net, use of electrofishing optional; or direct collection from fish farms or from commercial
fish markets

Euthanize

Remove externally adhered plastics prior to treatment by washing the
study organism with water, saline water or using forceps

Wrap in aluminum foil and place on
ice

Choice of preservation technique depends on the research question being considered, 4% formaldehyde
and 70% ethanol are commonly used fixatives

(Bessa et al. 2019, Lusher et al. 2017, Parker et al. 2020)

Trammel, seine, or gill net; bottom trawl; or electrofishing gear

Euthanasia solution

Aluminum
foil

Ice

Preservative

Provides data applicable to determine human health risk from ingestion Handling stress, physical movement, and the physiological and behavior of the sampled organism may result in
the loss of microplastics prior to animal preservation; some animals might egest microplastic debris prior to
analysis
Moderate to High
X X Fish (tissue/parts)
  • Biota
Capture fish in net, use of electrofishing optional; or direct collection from fish farms or from commercial
fish markets

Euthanize

Remove externally adhered plastics prior to treatment by washing the
study organism with water, saline water or using forceps

Wrap in aluminum foil and place on
ice

Choice of preservation technique depends on the research question being considered, 4% formaldehyde
and 70% ethanol are commonly used fixatives

Dissect in lab for target tissue/parts

(Bessa et al. 2019, Lusher et al. 2017, Parker et al. 2020)

Trammel, seine, or gill net; bottom trawl; or electrofishing gear

Euthanasia solution

Aluminum
foil

Ice

Preservative

Provides data useful for toxicity studies and risk assessments Tissue fixative can affect the structure, microbial surface communities, chemical composition, color, or
analytical properties of any microplastics within the sample
Moderate to High
X X Invertebrates
  • Biota
Capture invertebrate; or direct collection from shellfish farms or from commercial
markets

Euthanize

Remove externally adhered plastics prior to treatment by washing the study
organism with water, saline water or using forceps

Where dissection is prohibitive (e.g., mussels)
fluorescent microplastics can be quantified by physically homogenizing tissues

Choice of preservation
technique depends on the research question being considered, 4% formaldehyde and 70% ethanol are commonly used
fixatives

(Bessa et al. 2019, Lusher et al. 2017)

Grabs, traps, and creels; Kick or D-net; Bottom trawl; or
Manta or bongo nets (planktonic and nektonic
invertebrates)

Euthanasia solution

Aluminum foil

Ice

Preservative

Relatively easy to collect or purchase from biological supply vendors Handling stress, physical movement, and the physiological and behavior of the sampled organism may result in
the loss of microplastics prior to animal preservation; some animals might egest microplastic debris prior to
analysis
Moderate to High
X X Vertebrates
  • Biota
Capture vertebrate, or direct collection from commercial markets

Euthanize

Remove externally
adhered plastics prior to treatment by washing the study organism with water, saline water or using
forceps

Wrap in aluminum foil and place on ice

Choice of preservation technique depends on the
research question being considered, 4% formaldehyde and 70% ethanol are commonly used fixatives

Dissect
in lab for target tissue/parts

(Bessa et al. 2019, Lusher et al. 2017, Parker et al. 2020)

Traps

Euthanasia solution

Aluminum foil

Ice

Preservative

Provides data useful for toxicity studies and risk assessments Tissue fixative can affect the structure, microbial surface communities, chemical composition, color, or
analytical properties of any microplastics within the sample
High
X X Plants
  • Biota
Purchase vegetables and fruits from local markets or collect from the environment

Wash, peel as
needed, weigh, process in blender

Heat to reduce water content

Sample aliquots (0.1 g) and
transfer into transparent glass tubes

Mineralize, digest, and extract

(Oliveri Conti et al. 2020)

Blender

Oven

Glass tubes

Centrifuge

Easy to collect Low sensitivity of the method Moderate
X X Biofilm
  • Biota
Prepare batch reactors in duplicate to continuously stir 100 mL batches

Add polystyrene beads to
batch reactors

Sieve into two size classes

Incubate composited wastewater influent or freshwater
grab samples

Incubate duplicate reactors for two days

Recover beads and rinse

Transfer to
lysing tubes for biofilm DNA extraction

Extract DNA from the microparticles and concentrated filtrate
samples

(Glaser 2020, Parrish and Fahrenfeld 2019)

Series of batch reactors

Polystyrene and glass beads

Sieves

Oven

Lysing
tubes

Commercial DNA extraction kit

Formation of biofilms on microplastics is widely observed and can significantly alter properties important
to environmental and human health

Useful for determining fate and effect of microplastics on
environmental and human health

Methods to identify plastics may not be simultaneously compatible with methods used to study
biofilms

Oxidation and density separation remove biofilm

Moderate to High
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